Taruma Corpus
Language | Taruma |
Depositor | Konrad Arkadiusz Rybka, Anna Katharina Serke |
Affiliation | Leiden University |
Location | Guyana |
Collection ID | 0708 |
Collection Status | Collection online |
Landing page handle | http://hdl.handle.net/2196/er1678w2-sg49-0045-tp7w-2h6246z98853 |
Summary of the collection
English: This deposit is the result of the first documentation efforts centred on the Taruma language (isolate) via Wapishana (Arawakan), with a focus on the names and uses of plants, the preparation of food, the manufacture of traditional tools. Oral traditions and lexical and grammatical elicitation sessions are also included. The collection is the result of a collaborative documentation project of the Taruma language, culture and plant knowledge. This project took place in 2021 and was a collaborative effort of the same Taruma speakers, but also Taruma learners, linguists, and botanists, as specified below.
Tasks of the on-site team members:
Vincent Louis: identifying Taruma taxa in the field and describing their uses
Irene Suttie: cross-checking Taruma taxa from photos and describing their uses
Elizabeth Louis: creating photo vouchers, recording plant uses, translating
Nita Louis: creating photo vouchers, recording plant uses, translating
Adrian Gomes: coordinating activities in Maruranau, budget-keeping
Konaukii Gomes: sending data via WhatsApp, facilitating communication
Tasks of the off-site team members:
Robin Bredero: processing data, species identification, linguistic comparison
Anna Serke: transcribing Taruma and Wapishana recordings
Anne-Marie Holt: evaluating the remote research methodology
Tinde van Andel: supervising ethnobotanical research
Konrad Rybka: supervising linguistic research, coordinating the project
The bulk of the data were collected using a remote method, whereby the on-site participants used a smartphone to document the names and uses of plants and shared the data with the off-site researchers using the WhatsApp messaging application. One-month fieldwork took place at the end of the project; at this stage the Taruma learners, who are Wapishana speakers as well, helped transcribe and translate the recordings. The data contain the names and uses of a number of plants as well as tools and objects made from these plants, documented in Taruma, Wapishana and English; detailed photographs of the plants are included as well.
Language information
English: Taruma is an isolate spoken by one family in the Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo region in south-western Guyana. The speakers are bilingual in Taruma and Wapishana (Arawakan), and some of them also in English.
Group represented
English: The people whose speech is represented in this deposit are the Taruma. Taruma is an exonym of unclear origin; the speakers use Taruma when speaking in Wapishana, but call themselves Hodjase when speaking Taruma. They refer to their language as Kwase Dzuzu, “the language of the people”. Taruma is a language isolate. The Taruma lived near the Essequibo River since at least the mid-18th century, but in the first half of the 20th century, most of them were absorbed into the Wapishana and Waiwai communities. Today, there remains at least one family of Taruma speakers. They live in Turunau, a part of the village Maruranau, a Wapishana community located in the Upper Takutu Upper Essequibo region in Guyana, South America. The speakers belong to the older generation and are bilingual in Wapishana. The younger generation includes heritage speakers, actively learning the language; their principal languages are Wapishana and English.
Taruma history.
Little is known about Taruma history (Rivière 1966). The first mention of the Taruma dates back to 1657, but it does not come from Guyana. The name was recorded by Portuguese Jesuits on the Negro in Brazil. In subsequent decades, the Negro Taruma dwindled in numbers due to Portuguese slave raids, and by 1770, they were deemed extinct. In 1764, however, “a numerous and powerful tribe” called Tarouma was met for the first time on the Upper Essequibo in what is now Guyana (van’s Gravesande and Villiers 1920:245). But by mid 20th century, the Essequibo Taruma, likely decimated by epidemies, ceased to exist as a separate nation. Given the disappearance of the Negro Taruma and the simultaneous appearance of the Essequibo Tarouma, it has been assumed that the latter hail from the Negro (Martius 1867a:568–69). The assumption is questionable, however, as Taruma is an exonym, and exonyms can refer to various, even unrelated, nations. Saluma, likely a reflex of the same word, for example, was a nation of Suriname, perhaps a cohort of the Taruma, while Salumã, perhaps an unrelated word, is an Arawakan language of Brazil (Hoff 1955, Ramirez 2001). In one, we cannot be sure that the Negro Taruma and Essequibo Taruma refer to the same nation, nor in fact if they are the same word. Moreover, the language of the Negro Taruma is not documented and cannot be compared with that of the Essequibo Taruma to determine whether they represent the same language, and by extension related people. An alternative hypothesis is that the Essequibo Taruma are native to Guyana and their relationship to the Negro Taruma is limited to a similar name, perhaps the same exonym. Complementing the external accounts, this deposit includes recordings of the oral history of the Taruma speakers.
Taruma culture.
Little is known about Taruma culture. About the Negro Taruma, we know little more than that, like the Manao, they had commercial relations the Portuguese, to whom they supplied enslaved people, obtained by raiding Indigenous nations living further upriver. But as these sources of enslaved people became exhausted, the Taruma themselves became the victims of the Portuguese slave raids (Wright 1999:364). When it comes to the Essequibo Taruma, Farabee (1918) published several oral traditions and ethnographic notes. Ogilvie, a colonial prospector born in Scotland who lived in the Rupununi and assisted Farabee on his expedition, published an article on Wapishana and Taruma creation stories (Ogilvie 1940). His manuscript notes, housed by the Penn Museum Archives, offer additional commentary on the Taruma myths, lifeways, history, and interactions with other Indigenous nations (Ogilvie 1913). Roth met the Taruma in the early 1920s, and a number of ethnographic details about the Taruma, based on previous literature and his own fieldwork, appear in his ethnography (see Roth 1924, 1929). Yde’s (1965:70-93) ethnography of the Waiwai people of Brazil also mentions a few Taruma plant names and their uses. Besides the published sources, there are several museum collections that house Taruma materials. The National Museum of American Indian has a small collection of objects and photographs collected around 1918 by Verrill Hyatt, an American author and explorer. Another collection of similar size is housed by the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale University, which also includes a number of Taruma Phase pottery sherds.
The Taruma are known in archaeology from the research conducted in the Essequibo and Rupununi basin by Betty Meggers and Clifford Evans between 1952 and 1953. Meggers and Evans (1960:245–46) found several archaeological sites of what they dubbed the Taruma Phase, because the location of some of the sites coincides with the villages where the Taruma were met in historic times by Farabee and Schomburgk. As such, it was linked to the Taruma people and offer some insights into their past. The villages sites were typically surrounded by garden sites, both sufficiently elevated to escape flooding in the rainy season. The villages were occupied for relatively short time, but there is evidence that a number of the sites were occupied more than once. This may be the due to the small amount of high land bordering the Essequibo, but it is also possible that the Taruma “were restricted to movement within a specified area either by choice or by the presence of inhibiting conditions farther downstream.” In any case, the villages define what we could call the Taruma territory. Villages varied considerably in area, with a slight tendency for the later ones to be smaller, suggesting the community was shrinking. Generally, smaller villages also had shallower refuse accumulations, suggesting they were occupied for shorter periods of time. Finally, only five sites produced European trade materials, suggesting that their inhabitants had limited contact with Europeans. Pot sherds formed the bulk of the finds and were characterized by highly unique style. Boomert (1977:16) also adds that the work by Geijskes and Bubberman extends the Taruma Phase further east into Suriname, where pottery with similar features has been found.
Special characteristics
Collection contents
English: The materials include:
– sets of detailed photographs of plants (and their parts), identified by the Taruma in the vicinity of Maruranau (known as “photo vouchers” in the field of ethnobotany).
– transcribed audio recordings of plant names in Taruma and Wapishana, sent via WhatsApp, and concatenated into longer audio files; photographs of the plants were aligned with the audio recordings and included in the ELAN files as videos.
– transcribed audio recordings of the uses of plants, sent via WhatsApp, and concatenated into longer audio files, including the manufacture of tools and objects made from plants.
– transcribed audio (and video) recordings of narratives, including oral history and oral traditions.
– untranscribed audio recordings of the sessions in which the narratives were translated into English
– untranscribed audio recordings of elicitation of conversational phrases and grammatical features
The sessions are largely organised by date and then by genre: remote recording (rem), narrative (nar), songs (song), elicitation (eli), or translation (transl). All materials of the same genre from the same day are grouped together in a session. Only materials of the same genre and from the same day that do not belong together thematically are on the whole archived as separate sessions. The file names of the audio and video recordings and the corresponding ELAN files contain the ISO code for Taruma, the date of recording, the genre and a number representing the order in which recordings of that genre were made on that date (for instance, tdm20211002nar01). The file names of the plant pictures consist of the date on which they were taken, a number and the depicted plant part; the numbers correspond to the order in which the plants were photographed, named and described on a given day (e.g., 20210410_01_leaf.jpeg). This is also the order in which the plants appear in the ELAN files, in which there is a separate tier containing the file names of the corresponding photographs.
Collection history
Other Information
English: Boomert, Arie. 1977. “De Taruma: Een verdwenen Indianenstam uit Suriname.” Informatie- tijdschrift over ontwikkelingsvraagstukken van Suriname 2, no. 2: 13-17.
Butt Colson, Audrey, and John Morton. 1982. “Early Missionary Work among the Taruma and Waiwai of Southern Guiana: The Visits of Fr. Cuthbert Cary-Elwes, S.J. in 1919, 1922 and 1923.” Folk 24: 203–261.
Campbell, Lyle. 2012a. “Classification of the indigenous languages of South America.” In The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide, edited by Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona, 59-166. Mouton de Gruyter.
Evans, Clifford, and Betty Jane Meggers. 1960. Archeological Investigations in British Guiana. Vol. 177. Washington: US Government Printing Office.
Farabee, William C. 1917. “A Pioneer in Amazonia: The Narrative of a Journey from Manaos to Georgetown.” The Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia 15, no. 2: 57-103.
Farabee, William C. 1918. The Central Arawaks. Philadephia: University Museum.
Gillin, John. 1948. “Tribes of the Guianas.” In The Tropical Forest Tribes, edited by Julian H. Steward, 799-860. Washington 1946-1950: Washington: Smithsonian Institution, Washington: Bureau of American Ethnology.
Hoff, Berend J. 1955. “The languages of the Indians of Surinam and the comparative study of the Carib and Arawak languages.” Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde 4th edition: 325-355.
Kaufman, Terrence, with help from Brent Berlin. 2007. “South America.” In Atlas of theWorld’s Languages (2nd edition), edited by R. E. Asher and Christopher Moseley, 59–94. London: Routledge.
Latham, Robert G. 1862. Elements of comparative philology. London: Walton and Maberly.
Loukotka, Čestmír. 1949. “La Langue Taruma.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 38: 53-65.
Loukotka, Chestmir. 1968. “Classification of South American Languages.” Latin American Center, University of California, UCLA-Los Angcles.
von Martius, Carl F. P. 1867a. Zur Ethnographie. Vol. 1 of Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens. Leipzig: Friedrich Fleischer.
von Martius, Carl F. P. 1867b. Wörtersammlung Brasilianischer Sprachen. Vol. 2 of Beiträge zur Ethnographie und Sprachenkunde Amerikas zumal Brasiliens. Leipzig: Friedrich Fleischer.
Ogilvie, John. 1913. Manuscripts, Non-fiction. Penn Museum archives.
Ogilvie, John. 1940. “Creation Myths of the Wapisiana and Taruma British Guiana.” Folklore 51.1: 64-72.
Ramirez, Henri. 2001. Línguas Arawak da Amazônia setentrional: comparação e descrição. Edua.
Rivière, Peter. G. 1966. “Some ethnographic problems of Southern Guyana.” Folk 8, no. 9: 301-312.
Rivet, Paul. 1924. “Langues de l’Amérique du sud et des Antilles.” Les langues du Monde par un groupe de linguistes. Paris: 639-707.
Roth, Walter Edmund. 1924. An introductory study of the arts, crafts, and customs of the Guiana Indians. Vol. 38. US Government Printing Office.
Roth, Walter Edmund. 1929. Additional studies of the arts, crafts, and customs of the Guiana Indians: with special reference to those of Southern British Guiana. Vol. 91. US Government Printing Office.
Schomburgk, Robert H. 1848. “Remarks to accompany a comparative vocabulary of eighteen languages and dialects of Indian Tribes inhabiting Guiana.” Simmond’s Colonial Magazine 15: 46-64.
Storm van ‘s Gravesande, Laurens, and de Villiers, John A. J. 1920. Storm van’s Gravesande: zijn werk en zijn leven / uit zijne brieven opgebouwd door J. A. J. de Villiers. The Hague: Nijhoff.
Wright, Robin M., and Manuela Carneiro de Cunha. 1999. Destruction, Resistance, and Transformation–Southern, Coastal, and Northern Brazil (1580–1890). In The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, vol. 3, edited by Frank Salomon and Stuart B. Schwartz, 287–381. Cambridge University Press.
Yde, Jens. 1965. “Material culture of the Waiwai.” Etnografisk række 10. Copenhagen.
Acknowledgement and citation
English: The corpus as a whole should be cited as:
Suttie, Irene, Vincent Louis, Nita Louis, Elizabeth Louis, Anna Serke, Konrad Rybka. 2023. Taruma corpus. Endangered Languages Archive. Handle: http://hdl.handle.net/2196/po4579r5-ax41-3458-uk9d-9c6792m45822. Accessed on [insert date here].
Users of any parts of the corpus should refer to the title of the session and name the participants on the individual recordings as authors within the collection, e.g. Louis and Rybka (2022) in Suttie et al. (2023). The names are included in the metadata for specific sessions.